-
1 national
national ['næʃənəl]national;∎ the national newspapers la presse nationale;∎ he became a national hero il est devenu un héros national;∎ the country's national sport le sport national du pays;∎ a source of national pride une source de fierté nationale;∎ the killings caused a national outcry les assassinats ont scandalisé le pays;∎ on a national scale à l'échelle nationale;∎ they won 38 percent of the national vote ils ont remporté 38 pour cent des voix sur l'ensemble du pays;∎ it's not in the national interest ce n'est pas dans l'intérêt du pays2 noun∎ all EU nationals tous les ressortissants des pays de l'Union européenne;∎ Irish nationals ressortissants mpl de la République d'Irlande(b) (newspaper) journal m national►► national accounting comptabilité f nationale;national anthem hymne m national;French Canadian national assembly (in Quebec) Assemblée f nationale;British old-fashioned national assistance assistance f publique;American National Association of Colleges and Universities = association des établissements d'enseignement supérieur américains;British the National Audit Office ≃ la Cour des comptes;national bank = banque agréée par le gouvernement américain et qui doit faire partie du système bancaire fédéral;the National Cancer Institute = organisme américain de recherche sur le cancer;the National Childbirth Trust = organisme d'information et d'éducation des jeunes parents en Grande-Bretagne;Australian national code football m australien;American the National Collegiate Athletic Association = association interuniversitaire traitant des questions sportives;American Politics National Convention = grande réunion du parti démocrate ou républicain pour choisir le "ticket" (candidats à la présidence et à la vice-présidence);national costume costume m national;the National Council for Civil Liberties = en Grande-Bretagne, ligue de défense des droits du citoyen luttant contre toute forme de discrimination;the National Council for Vocational Qualifications = organisme britannique responsable de la formation professionnelle;the National Curriculum = programme introduit en 1988 définissant au niveau national (Angleterre et pays de Galles) le contenu de l'enseignement primaire et secondaire;Finance national debt dette f publique, dette f de l'État;national dress costume m national;the National Endowment for the Arts = organisme américain accordant des bourses à des artistes, des musées ou des compagnies théâtrales;the National Endowment for the Humanities = organisme américain accordant des bourses à des écrivains ou à des chercheurs;the National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts = organisme indépendant d'aide financière, à partir de fonds provenant de la Loterie nationale, aux artistes, inventeurs et scientifiques;Press National Enquirer = hebdomadaire américain à sensation;British the National Enterprise Board ≃ Agence f nationale pour le développement industriel;British Politics the National Executive Committee = comité chargé de définir la ligne d'action du parti travailliste;the National Exhibition Centre = centre de conférences et d'expositions à Birmingham (Angleterre);National Express ® = société d'autocars reliant les principales villes de Grande-Bretagne;British National Extension College centre m d'enseignement à distance;the National Farmers' Union = syndicat britannique d'exploitants agricoles;the National Film Theatre = cinémathèque à Londres;the National Foundation of the Arts and Humanities = organisme public américain d'aide à l'action culturelle;the National Front = parti d'extrême droite britannique, ≃ le Front national;the National Gallery la National Gallery (principal musée de peinture du Royaume-Uni, situé à Londres);national government gouvernement m de coalition;Finance National Giro = service britannique de chèques postaux;the National Graphical Association = syndicat britannique d'imprimeurs;national grid British Electricity réseau m national d'électricité; Geography réseau m;the National Guard (in the US) la Garde nationale (armée nationale américaine composée de volontaires);National Guardsman membre m de la Garde nationale;the National Health (Service) = système créé en 1946 en Grande-Bretagne et financé par l'État, assurant la gratuité des soins et des services médicaux, ≃ la Sécurité sociale;∎ to get treatment on the National Health (Service) se faire soigner sous le régime de la Sécurité sociale;British National Health Service glasses = modèle de lunettes remboursé par la Sécurité sociale;National Heritage = organisme ayant pour mission la conservation du patrimoine;national hunt (racing) courses fpl d'obstacles;national income revenu m national;British national insurance = système britannique de sécurité sociale (maladie, retraite) et d'assurance chômage;national insurance contributions cotisations fpl à la Sécurité sociale;national insurance number numéro m de Sécurité sociale;American the National Labor Relations Board = organisme américain de conciliation et d'arbitrage des conflits du travail, ≃ conseil m de prud'hommes;Press National Lampoon = revue satirique américaine;National League = l'une des deux ligues professionnelles de base-ball aux États-Unis;the National Lottery = loterie nationale britannique;the National Liberation Front le Front de libération nationale;the National Maritime Museum = musée de la mer situé à Greenwich;National Missile Defence System projet m NMD (programme de défense antimissiles américain);National Organization for Women = organisation de lutte pour les droits de la femme;national park parc m national;the National Portrait Gallery = musée londonien entièrement consacré aux portraits;National Power = entreprise privée de production d'électricité en Angleterre et au pays de Galles;Finance national product produit m national;National Public Radio = réseau américain de stations de radio libres;national readership survey étude f nationale sur le lectorat;the National Rifle Association = association américaine défendant le droit au port d'armes;British National Savings Bank ≃ Caisse f nationale d'épargne;National Savings certificate bon m de caisse d'épargne;Irish national school école f primaire;American the National Science Foundation = organisme d'aide à la recherche scientifique;national security sécurité f nationale;American Politics National Security Adviser = conseiller du président américain sur les questions de sécurité nationale;Politics the National Security Council le Conseil de sécurité nationale;British national service service m militaire;British national serviceman appelé m, militaire m du contingent;national socialism national-socialisme m;1 nounnational-socialiste mfnational-socialiste;the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children = association britannique de protection de l'enfance;Irish national teacher instituteur(trice) m,f;the National Theatre (in London) = important centre dramatique à Londres, siège de la Royal National Theatre Company;American the National Transportation Safety Board = agence du gouvernement américain chargée des questions de sécurité dans le domaine des transports;British the National Trust = organisme non gouvernemental britannique assurant la conservation de certains paysages et monuments historiques;National Trust property ≃ site m protégé;the National Trust for Scotland = organisme non gouvernemental assurant la conservation de certains paysages et monuments historiques écossais;National Vocational Qualification = diplôme britannique professionnel national;the National Weather Service = les services météorologiques américainsⓘ NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE Le "National Health Service" ou "NHS" fut créé par le gouvernement travailliste en 1946, donnant accès à chacun aux soins médicaux gratuits. Cependant, au cours des années 80, le gouvernement de Margaret Thatcher voulut encourager le public à souscrire des assurances médicales privées, et le "NHS" subit des coupes budgétaires importantes. Au cours de ces dernières années, la polémique autour du "National Health Service" s'est intensifiée. Le "NHS" connaît en effet de nombreuses difficultés. -
2 national
national [ˈnæ∫ənl]1. adjectivenational ; [election, referendum] à l'échelle nationale2. noun3. compounds► national government noun ( = not local) gouvernement m (central) ; ( = coalition) gouvernement m de coalition• I got it on the National Health (inf) ≈ ça m'a été remboursé par la Sécurité sociale ► National Health Service noun (British) ≈ Sécurité f sociale → NHS► National Trust noun (British) organisme privé de sauvegarde des monuments historiques et des sites━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Le National Curriculum est le programme d'enseignement obligatoire dans toutes les écoles d'Angleterre et du pays de Galles. Il comprend les matières suivantes: anglais, mathématiques, sciences, technologie, histoire, géographie, musique, art, éducation physique et une langue vivante étrangère (et le gallois dans les écoles du pays de Galles). Tous les établissements primaires et secondaires doivent proposer un enseignement religieux, et les écoles secondaires une éducation sexuelle, mais les parents sont libres, s'ils le veulent, d'en dispenser leurs enfants.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━La National Insurance est le régime de sécurité sociale britannique auquel cotisent les salariés, leurs employeurs et les travailleurs indépendants. Une partie de ces contributions finance l'assurance maladie (« National Health Service »), mais l'essentiel sert à payer les pensions de retraite, l'assurance chômage et les allocations de veuvage, d'invalidité et de maternité. Pour avoir droit à ces dernières prestations, il faut avoir cotisé à la National Insurance pendant un certain nombre d'années. → NHS━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Le National Trust est un organisme indépendant, à but non lucratif, dont la mission est de protéger et de mettre en valeur les monuments et les sites britanniques en raison de leur intérêt historique ou de leur beauté naturelle.* * *['næʃənl] 1.1) ( citizen) ressortissant/-e m/f2) (colloq) GB ( newspaper)2.adjective nationalthe national press ou newspapers — GB les grands quotidiens mpl
-
3 ♦ national
♦ national /ˈnæʃənl/A a.1 nazionale; patrio: national anthem, inno nazionale; national bank, banca nazionale; national theatre, teatro nazionale ( di Stato); (econ.) national income, reddito nazionale; national monument, monumento nazionale; ( sport) the national team, la nazionale; ( sport) national championship, campionato nazionaleB n.● (in GB) National Audit Office, organo di controllo dell'amministrazione statate (cfr. in Italia la Corte dei Conti) □ ( sport) national coach, allenatore della nazionale; CT □ (fin.) national debt, debito pubblico □ national duty, servizio militare (di leva): He was excused national duty, è stato esonerato dal servizio militare □ national finance, finanza dello Stato □ (polit.) national government, governo nazionale □ the national grid, la rete nazionale ( del gas, ecc.) □ (in USA) The National Guard, la Guardia Nazionale ( la milizia territoriale dei singoli Stati) □ the National Health Service, il Servizio d'Assistenza Sanitaria; la Mutua (fam.) □ (in GB) national insurance, assicurazioni sociali □ (in GB) National Insurance Number, il numero della tessera delle assicurazioni sociali ( funge anche da codice fiscale) □ (fin.) national saving, risparmio nazionale □ (in GB) national service, il servizio militare di leva ( dal 1948 al 1960) □ ( sport) a national side, una nazionale ( squadra) □ (stor.) National Socialism, nazionalsocialismo; nazismo □ (stor.) National Socialist, nazionalsocialista; nazista. -
4 national
1. прил.1) общ. национальный, общенациональный, народный (относящийся к данной стране, народу в целом; в отличие от местного, регионального, международного)national law — национальное [внутригосударственное\] право
Syn:See:international, transnational, supranational, domestic, national accordance, national account, national accounts, national affairs, national administration 2), national advertising, national agreement, national assent, National Automated Accounting Research System, national bank 2), national bolshevism, national brand, national campaign, national central bank, National Change of Address, national character, national communism, national communist, National Competition Policy, national competitive bidding, national consent, national consumption, National Counterintelligence Executive, national currency, National Development Bond, National Disability Development Initiative, national distribution, national distributor, national economic accounting, national economics, National Exchange Market System, national firm, National Flood Insurance Program, national government, national harmony, national idea, national identity, national income, National Institutional Delivery System, National Insurance, national interest, national launch, national legitimacy, national market, national marketer, national marketing, national minimum wage, national nominating convention, national non-domestic rate, national numbering agency, national origins system, national origins quota system, national ownership 2), national patent, national patent law, national policy, national policy, national politics, national product, national promotion, National Public Accountant, national question, national reconciliation, national retailer, national sales force, national sales manager, national savings, National Secretary's Day, national security, national self-consciousness, national self-determination, national service, National Socialism, national sovereignty, national tax policy, national taxes, national trademark, national treatment, National Vocation Qualification, national wealth, national wholesaler, National Westminster Bank Ltd. v. Holesowen Presswork and Assemblies Ltd., National Association of Securities Dealers Rules of Fair Practice, National Bank Act, National Banking Act, National Exchange Market System Act, National Flood Insurance Act, National Health Service Reorganization Act 1973, National Housing Act, National Income and Product Accounts, National Labor Relations Act, National Minimum Wage Act 1998, National Trade Estimate Report, National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers, National Advertising Benevolent Society, National Advertising Division, National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus, National Advertising Review Board, National Advertising Review Council, National Advisory Council on International Monetary and Financial Policies, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Agricultural Statistics Service, National Alliance for Insurance Education & Research, National Alliance for Insurance Education and Research, National Alliance Research Academy, National and Local Government Officers' Association, National Assembly, National Association for Variable Annuities, National Association of Accountants, National Association of Colleges and Employers, National Association of Corporation Schools, National Association of Corporation Training, National Association of Cost Accountants, National Association of Employment Managers, National Association of Export Companies, National Association of Federal Credit Unions, National Association of Health Underwriters, National Association of Independent Insurance Adjusters, National Association of Independent Insurers, National Association of Insurance and Financial Advisors, National Association of Insurance Brokers, National Association of Insurance Commissioners, National Association of Insurance Women, National Association of Investment Clubs, National Association of Investment Companies, National Association of Investors Corporation, National Association of Life Underwriters, National Association of Mutual Insurance Companies, National Association of Pension Funds, National Association of Personal Financial Advisors, National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, National Association of Professional Surplus Lines Offices, National Association of Public Insurance Adjusters, National Association of Purchasing Managers, National Association of Recording Merchandisers, National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, National Association of Schoolmasters and Union of Women Teachers, National Association of Securities Dealers, National Association of Securities Dealers and Investment Managers, National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers, National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers and Treasurers2) общ. государственный (финансируемый и/или контролируемый государством; в отличие от частного)national library — государственная [национальная\] библиотека
See:national administration 1), national bank 1), national curriculum, national debt, national ownership 1), national property, national treasury, National Archives and Records Administration, National Cemetery Administration2. сущ.общ. подданный, гражданин (какого-л. государства)fellow nationals, one's own nationals — сограждане, соотечественники
See:specially designated national, Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States, resident 2. 2)
* * *
1) национальный, относящийся к данному государству, народу; 2) внутренний, в отличие от международного. -
5 national
1. [ʹnæʃ(ə)nəl] n1. гражданин, подданный (какого-л. государства)fellow nationals, one's own nationals - сограждане, соотечественники
2. амер. национал ( в отличие от полноправного гражданина)natives of territories are nationals but not citizens of the USA - уроженцы территорий являются националами, но не гражданами США
3. амер. спорт. турнир, состязание в масштабе всей страны2. [ʹnæʃ(ə)nəl] a1. 1) национальный, государственный; народный, всенародныйnational spirit /genius/ - дух народа
national income - эк. национальный доход
national debt - эк. государственный долг
national forest - государственный лес; лесной заповедник
national roads - государственные дороги, автострады
national bank - а) государственный банк; б) амер. национальный банк ( частный коммерческий банк)
national price level - эк. уровень внутренних цен
national law - юр. внутригосударственное /национальное/ право
national treatment - юр. национальный режим
national government - а) центральное /национальное/ правительство (в отличие от властей штата, провинции); б) коалиционное правительство
national committee - амер. национальный комитет ( центральный комитет партии)
national chairman - амер. председатель национального комитета ( партии)
national convention - амер. национальный (партийный) съезд
national salute - воен. мор. салют государственному флагу; салют наций
national figure - человек, которого знает вся страна; видный деятель
national command - а) национальные войска, войска государства; б) войска государства, входящего в военный союз; в) национальное командование
national markings - государственные опознавательные /отличительные/ знаки (самолёта и т. п.)
national defence - оборона страны, национальная оборона
national defence information - сведения, составляющие государственную военную тайну
national security - а) национальная /государственная/ безопасность; б) оборона государства, национальная оборона
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - Национальная ассоциация содействия прогрессу цветного населения ( в США)
2) амер. федеральный, относящийся к ведению центрального правительства ( а не к ведению властей отдельного штата)2. национальный, относящийся к нации, национальности; относящийся к какому-л. народуnational self-determination - национальное самоопределение, самоопределение народов
3. редк. националистический4. (National) амер. ист. союзный, северный (во время гражданской войны 1861-65 гг.)National and Confederate writers - писатели Союза /Севера/ и Конфедерации /Юга/
♢
National game - амер. бейсбол -
6 national
1. n гражданин, подданный2. n амер. националnatives of territories are nationals but not citizens of the USA — уроженцы территорий являются националами, но не гражданами США
3. n амер. спорт. турнир, состязание в масштабе всей страныnational identity — национальная самобытность, лицо страны
national emblem — герб страны, государственный герб
4. a национальный, государственный; народный, всенародныйnational forest — государственный лес; лесной заповедник
national roads — государственные дороги, автострады
national salute — салют государственному флагу; салют наций
national figure — человек, которого знает вся страна; видный деятель
national defence — оборона страны, национальная оборона
national defence information — сведения, составляющие государственную военную тайну
5. a амер. федеральный, относящийся к ведению центрального правительстваnational self-determination — национальное самоопределение, самоопределение народов
national department — федеральное ведомство, министерство
6. a редк. националистический7. a амер. ист. союзный, северныйСинонимический ряд:1. civil (adj.) civic; civil; federal; government; governmental; political; public; royal; societal; sovereign; state2. domestic (adj.) domestic; home; internal; intestine; municipal; native3. nationwide (adj.) country-wide; general; inland; interstate; nationwide; sweeping; widespread4. citizen (noun) citizen; inhabitant; native; subjectАнтонимический ряд:foreigner; private -
7 national
ˈnæʃənl
1. прил.
1) народный, национальный, относящийся к какой-л. нации national feelings ≈ национальные чувства national self-determination ≈ национальное самоопределение national minority ≈ национальное меньшинство national convention ≈ амер. национальный партийный съезд
2) государственный national anthem ≈ государственный гимн national park амер. ≈ заповедник;
национальный парк national team спорт ≈ сборная страны, национальная сборная Syn: state, public
2. сущ.;
часто мн.
1) соотечественник Syn: compatriot, fellow countryman
2) подданный, гражданин( какого-л. государства) a Sri Lankan-born British national ≈ британский подданный, родившийся в Шри-Ланке enemy nationals ≈ подданные враждебного государства
3) ам. спортивные соревнования в масштабе всей страны гражданин, подданный (какого-л. государства) - French *s французские граждане - Belgian *s бельгийские подданные - enemy *s граждане враждебного государства - fellow *s, one's own *s сограждане, соотечественники (американизм) национал (в отличие от полноправного гражданина) - natives of territories are *s but not citizens of the USA уроженцы территорий являются националами, но не гражданами США( американизм) (спортивное) турнир, состязание в масштабе всей страны национальный, государственный;
народный, всенародный - * anthem государственный гимн - * spirit /genius/ дух народа - * theatre государственный театр - * economy народное хозяйство - * income (экономика) национальный доход - * debt (экономика) государственный долг - * forest государственный лес;
лесной заповедник - * elections всеобщие выборы - * calamity народное бедствие - * papers центральные газеты - * roads государственные дороги, автострады - * bank государственный банк;
(американизм) национальный банк (частный коммерческий банк) - * price level( экономика) уровень внутренних цен по стране - * law (юридическое) внутригосударственное /национальное/ право - * treatment( юридическое) национальный режим - * government центральное /национальное/ правительство (в отличие от властей штата, провинции) ;
коалиционное правительство - * committee( американизм) национальный комитет (центральный комитет партии) - * chairman( американизм) председатель национального комитета (партии) - * convention( американизм) национальный (партийный) съезд - * salute( военное) (морское) салют государственному флагу;
салют наций - * figure человек, которого знает вся страна;
видный деятель - * command национальные войска, войска государства;
войска государства, входящего в военный союз;
национальное командование - * emergency чрезвычайное положение в стране - * markings государственные опознавательные /отличительные/ знаки (самолета и т. п.) - * defence оборона страны, национальная оборона - * defence forces вооруженные силы( государства) - * defence information сведения, составляющие государственную военную тайну - * security национальная /государственная/ безопасность;
оборона государства, национальная оборона - * serviceman призванный по закону о воинской повинности (в Великобритании) - N. Association for the Advancement of Colored People Национальная ассоциация содействия прогрессу цветного населения (в США) (американизм) федеральный, относящийся к ведению ценрального правительства (а не к ведению властей отдельного штата) национальный, относящийся к нации, национальности;
относящийся к какому-л. народу - * minority национальное меньшинство - * self-determination национальное самоопределение, самоопределение народов - * feelings национальные чувства - * origin(s) национальное происхождение - * liberation movement национально-освободительное движение( редкое) националистический - to be * быть националистом (N.) (американизм) (историческое) союзный, северный (во время гражданской войны 1861- 65 г.г.) - N. troops армии Севера - N. and Confederate writers писатели Союза /Севера/ и Конфедерации /Юга/ > N. game (американизм) бейсбол national (часто pl) подданный (или гражданин) (какого-л.) государства;
enemy nationals подданные враждебного государства foreign ~ иностранный подданный national (часто pl) подданный (или гражданин) (какого-л.) государства;
enemy nationals подданные враждебного государства ~ государственный;
national anthem государственный гимн;
national bank государственный банк;
national park амер. заповедник;
национальный парк ~ государственный ~ гражданин, подданный ~ гражданин ~ гражданин представляемого государства ~ национальный, народный;
national assembly национальное собрание ~ национальный, государственный ~ национальный ~ отечество ~ подданный ~ (часто pl) соотечественник, согражданин ~ федеральный ~ федеральный (США) ~ economy народное хозяйство;
national minority национальное меньшинство;
national convention амер. национальный партийный съезд ~ enterprise государственное предприятие;
national forces вооруженные силы страны;
National Service воинская или трудовая повинность ~ enterprise государственное предприятие;
national forces вооруженные силы страны;
National Service воинская или трудовая повинность ~ government амер. центральное правительство;
national team спорт. сборная страны, национальная сборная ~ государственный;
national anthem государственный гимн;
national bank государственный банк;
national park амер. заповедник;
национальный парк park: national ~ национальный парк ~ enterprise государственное предприятие;
national forces вооруженные силы страны;
National Service воинская или трудовая повинность service: ~ служба (область работы и т. п.) ;
Civil Service государственная (гражданская) служба;
National Service воинская или трудовая повинность (в Англии) national ~ воинская служба ~ government амер. центральное правительство;
national team спорт. сборная страны, национальная сборнаяБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > national
-
8 grand-livre
grand-livre de la dette publique Fin national debt register.[grɑ̃livr] ( pluriel grands-livres) nom masculin -
9 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
10 public
public ['pʌblɪk](a) (of, by the state → education, debt) public;∎ built at public expense construit aux frais du contribuable;∎ to hold public office avoir des fonctions officielles(b) (open or accessible to all → place, meeting) public;∎ was it a public trial? le public pouvait-il assister au procès?;∎ let's talk somewhere less public allons discuter dans un endroit plus tranquille;∎ these gardens are public property! ces jardins appartiennent à tout le monde!(c) (of, by the people) public;∎ the public interest or good le bien ou l'intérêt m public;∎ in the public interest dans l'intérêt du public;∎ public interest in the matter was flagging le public manifestait de moins en moins d'intérêt pour cette affaire;∎ to make a public protest protester publiquement;∎ the increase in crime is generating great public concern la montée de la criminalité inquiète sérieusement la population;∎ to restore public confidence regagner la confiance de la population;∎ a public outcry un tollé général;∎ it created a public scandal ça a provoqué un scandale retentissant;∎ public awareness of the problem has increased le public est plus sensible au problème maintenant;∎ the bill has public support l'opinion publique est favorable au projet de loi(d) (publicly known, open) public;∎ to make sth public rendre qch public;∎ to make a public appearance paraître en public;∎ to go into public life se lancer dans les affaires publiques;∎ she's active in public life elle prend une part active aux affaires publiques;∎ the contrast between his public and his private life le contraste entre sa vie publique et sa vie privée;∎ his first public statement sa première déclaration publique;∎ he made a public denial of the rumours il a démenti publiquement les rumeurs, il a apporté un démenti public aux rumeurs;∎ it's public knowledge that… il est de notoriété publique que…2 adverb∎ the company is going public la société va être cotée en Bourse;∎ to go public with the story raconter toute l'histoire3 nounpublic m;∎ the (general) public le (grand) public;∎ in public en public, publiquement;∎ the public is or are tired of political scandals la population est lasse des scandales politiques;∎ Finance to issue shares to the public placer des actions dans le public;∎ her books reach a wide public ses livres touchent un public très large;∎ the movie-going public les amateurs de ou les gens qui vont au cinéma;∎ the viewing public les téléspectateurs;∎ your public awaits or await you votre public vous attenden public►► American Television public access channel = chaîne du réseau câblé sur laquelle des particuliers peuvent diffuser leurs propres émissions;American Television public access television = chaînes télévisées câblées non commerciales;public affairs affaires fpl publiques;American public assistance aide f sociale;public authorities pouvoirs mpl publics;British public bar salle f de bar (dans un "pub" qui contient deux bars séparés, l'expression désigne le plus populaire des deux);public baths bains mpl publics;public body corporation f de droit public;British public call box cabine f (téléphonique) publique;public company ≃ société f anonyme;British public convenience toilettes fpl publiques;British & French Canadian public corporation entreprise f publique;Finance public debt dette f publique ou de l'État;Finance public deposits = avoirs des différents services du gouvernement britannique à la Banque d'Angleterre;public domain domaine m public;∎ to be in the public domain (publication) être dans le domaine public;Computing public domain software logiciel m (du domaine) public, French Canadian publiciel m;public enemy ennemi m public;∎ public enemy number one ennemi m public numéro un;public examination examen m national de l'enseignement public;public expenditure dépenses fpl publiques;public figure personnalité f très en vue;public finance finances fpl publiques;British public footpath sentier m public;public funds fonds mpl publics;public gallery tribune f réservée au public;public health santé f publique;the public health authorities = administration régionale des services publics de santé;public health clinic centre m d'hygiène publique;public health hazard risque m pour la santé publique;old-fashioned public health inspector inspecteur(trice) m,f sanitaire;public health official représentant(e) m,f de la santé publique;public holiday jour m férié, fête f légale;American public housing logements mpl sociaux, ≃ HLM f inv;American Public Housing Administration = services du logement social aux États-Unis;American public housing project ≃ cité f HLM;Law public indecency outrage m public à la pudeur;∎ to be arrested for public indecency se faire arrêter pour outrage public à la pudeur;public inquiry enquête f officielle;∎ to hold a public inquiry faire une enquête officielle;British public lavatory toilettes fpl publiques;public law droit m public;public lending right = droits que touche un auteur ou un éditeur pour le prêt de ses livres en bibliothèque;public liability responsabilité f civile;public liability insurance assurance f responsabilité civile;public library bibliothèque f municipale;public limited company ≃ société f anonyme;public loan emprunt m public;public money deniers mpl ou fonds mpl publics;public monies deniers mpl de l'État;public nuisance (person) fléau m public, empoisonneur(euse) m,f;∎ the pub's late opening hours were creating a public nuisance (act) les heures d'ouverture tardives du pub portaient atteinte à la tranquillité générale;Stock Exchange public offering offre f publique;public official fonctionnaire mf;public opinion opinion f publique;public opinion poll sondage m (d'opinion);public ownership nationalisation f, étatisation f;∎ most airports are under public ownership la plupart des aéroports appartiennent à l'État;public park jardin m public;Law public prosecutor ≃ procureur m général, ≃ ministère m public;British the public purse le Trésor (public);British Public Record Office ≃ Archives fpl nationales;public relations relations fpl publiques;∎ giving them a free meal was great public relations en leur offrant le repas, nous avons fait un excellent travail de relations publiques;public relations agency, public relations consultancy agence f conseil en communication;public relations consultant conseil m en relations publiques, conseil m en communication;public relations exercise opération f de relations publiques;∎ it was a good public relations exercise ce fut une réussite pour ce qui est des relations publiques;public relations manager directeur(trice) m,f des relations publiques;public relations officer responsable mf des relations publiques;British public schoolboy = élève d'une "public school";British public schoolgirl = élève d'une "public school";public sector secteur m publique;British Finance public sector borrowing requirement = besoins d'emprunt du secteur public non couverts par les rentrées fiscales;Finance public sector deficit déficit m du secteur public;Finance public sector earnings revenus mpl du secteur public;public servant fonctionnaire mf;public service (amenity) service m public ou d'intérêt général; British (civil service) fonction f publique;∎ she's in public service elle est fonctionnaire;∎ Administration our organization performs a public service notre association assure un service d'intérêt général;Stock Exchange public share offer offre f publique de vente;public speaker orateur(trice) m,f;∎ he's a very good public speaker c'est un excellent orateur;public speaking art m oratoire;∎ humorous unaccustomed as I am to public speaking bien que je n'aie pas l'habitude de prendre la parole en public;School public speaking contest concours m d'éloquence;Finance public spending (UNCOUNT) dépenses fpl publiques ou de l'État;public spirit sens m civique, civisme m;American public television (télévision f du) service m public;public transport (UNCOUNT) transports mpl en commun;public transport users usagers mpl des transports en commun;public utility American (company) = société privée assurant un service public et réglementée par une commission d'État; British (amenity) service m public;British public utility company société f d'utilité publique;public works travaux mpl publicsⓘ PUBLIC ACCESS TELEVISION Aux États-Unis, on appelle "public access television" les chaînes télévisées câblées non commerciales mises à la disposition d'organisations à but non lucratif et des citoyens. En 1984, le Congrès adopta le "Cable Communications Policy Act" afin de faire face au problème de la monopolisation des chaînes par un nombre réduit de cablo-opérateurs. Cette loi exige des propriétaires de chaînes câblées qu'ils mettent une chaîne à la disposition des communautés locales ainsi qu'un studio et du matériel d'enregistrement, et qu'ils fournissent également une assistance technique si nécessaire.ⓘ PUBLIC SCHOOL En Angleterre et au pays de Galles, le terme "public school" désigne une école privée de type traditionnel. Certaines de ces écoles (Eton et Harrow, par exemple) sont très prestigieuses et élitistes. Les "public schools" sont censées former l'élite de la nation. Aux États-Unis et parfois en Écosse, le terme désigne une école publique. -
11 service
service [sεʀvis]━━━━━━━━━2. compounds━━━━━━━━━1. <a. service• prendre qn à son service to take sb into one's service► en service [installation, usine] in service• la mise en service des nouveaux autobus est prévue pour juin the new buses are due to be put into service in June► hors service [appareil] out of order attrib ; [personne] (inf) shattered (inf)b. ( = travail) duty• qui est de service cette nuit ? who's on duty tonight?c. ( = département) department ; ( = administration) service• les services de santé/postaux health/postal servicesd. ( = faveur, aide) servicee. (à table, au restaurant) service ; ( = pourboire) service charge• passe-moi les amuse-gueules, je vais faire le service hand me the appetizers, I'll pass them round• deuxième service ( = série de repas) second sittingf. ( = assortiment) set2. <• une télévision de service public a public television company ► les services secrets the secret service━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Until 1997, French men over the age of 18 who were passed as fit, and who were not in full-time higher education, were required to do ten months' service militaire. Conscientious objectors were required to do two years' community service.Since 1997, military service has been suspended in France. However, all sixteen-year-olds, both male and female, are required to register for a compulsory one-day training course, the « journée défense et citoyenneté », which covers basic information on the principles and organization of defence in France, and also advises on career opportunities in the military and in the voluntary sector. Young people must attend the training day before their eighteenth birthday.* * *sɛʀvis
1.
nom masculin1) (action serviable, faveur)je peux te demander un service? — ( action serviable) can I ask you to do something for me?; ( faveur) can I ask you a favour [BrE]?
2) ( liaison) service3) ( fonctionnement)être en service — [ascenseur] ( en train de fonctionner) to be working; ( en état de fonctionner) to be in working order; [autoroute] to be open; [ligne de métro, de bus] to be running
être hors service — [ascenseur] to be out of order
entrer en service — [ligne de métro, autoroute] to be opened, to come into service
mettre en service — to bring [something] into service [appareil, véhicule]; to open [gare, autoroute, ligne de bus]
4) ( aide)rendre service à quelqu'un — [machine, appareil] to be a help to somebody; [route, passage, magasin] to be convenient (for somebody)
5) ( action de servir) serviceje suis à leur service — ( employé) I work for them; ( dévoué) I'm at their disposal
‘à votre service!’ — ( je vous en prie) ‘don't mention it!’, ‘not at all!’
‘que puis-je faire or qu'y a-t-il pour votre service?’ — ‘may I help you?’
6) ( à table) service12% pour le service — 12% service charge
faire le service — ( servir les plats) to serve; ( desservir) to act as waiter
7) ( des gens de maison) (domestic) serviceprendre quelqu'un à son service — to take somebody on, to engage somebody
escalier de service — backstairs (pl), service stairs (pl)
8) ( obligations professionnelles) serviceêtre de or en service — to be on duty
son service se termine à — he/she comes off duty at
être en service commandé — [policier] to be acting under orders
état de service(s) — record of service, service record
9) ( section administrative) departmentservice des urgences — casualty department GB, emergency room US
les services d'espionnage or de renseignements — the intelligence services
les services du Premier Ministre se refusent à tout commentaire — the Prime Minister's office has refused to comment
chef de service — ( dans une administration) section head; ( dans un hôpital) senior consultant
10) Arméeservice (militaire) — military ou national service
partir au service — (colloq) to go off to do one's military service
être bon pour le service — lit to be passed fit for military service; fig hum to be passed fit
reprendre du service — to re-enlist, to sign up again
11) ( vaisselle) set12) Religion service13) Sport service, serveêtre au service — to serve ou be serving
2.
services nom masculin pluriel servicesPhrasal Verbs:* * *sɛʀvis1. nm1) (= aide, faveur) favour Grande-Bretagne favor USAIl aime rendre service. — He likes to help.
2) (= travail)3) (= fonctionnement)être en service [machine] — to be in service, to be in operation
mettre en service — to put into service, to put into operation
hors service — not in use, (= en panne) out of order
4) (= bureau) department, section5) (= pourboire) service chargeLe service est compris. — Service is included.
6) (= repas)premier/deuxième service — first/second sitting
7) (= vaisselle) set, service8) TENNIS serve, serviceIl a un bon service. — He's got a good serve.
2. services nmplÉCONOMIE services* * *A nm1 (action serviable, faveur) je peux te demander un service? ( action serviable) can I ask you to do something for me?; ( faveur) can I ask you a favourGB?; pourrais-tu me rendre un petit service? could you do something for me?; tu m'as rendu service (en faisant cela) that was a great help; elle m'a rendu de nombreux services she's been very helpful; il est toujours prêt à rendre service he is always ready to help; rendre un mauvais service à qn to do sb a disservice; ce n'est pas un service à leur rendre or ce n'est pas leur rendre service que de faire leurs devoirs you are not helping them by doing their homework for them;2 ( liaison) service; service de bus bus service; le service d'été/d'hiver/de nuit the summer/winter/night service; le service n'est pas assuré le dimanche there's no service on Sundays; service réduit or partiel reduced service;3 ( fonctionnement) être en service [ascenseur] ( en train de fonctionner) to be working; ( en état de fonctionner) to be in working order; être en service [autoroute] to be open; [ligne de métro, de bus] to be running; [aérogare] to be open, to be in operation; ne pas être en service [ligne de métro] to be closed; être hors service [ascenseur] to be out of order; entrer en service [ligne de métro, aérogare, autoroute] to be opened, to come into service; mettre en service to bring [sth] into service [appareil, véhicule]; to open [gare, aérogare, autoroute, ligne de bus]; remettre en service to bring [sth] back into service [appareil]; to reopen [gare, autoroute] ; la mise or l'entrée en service de la ligne de bus the start of the new bus service; depuis la mise or l'entrée en service de cette route since the opening of this road;4 ( aide) rendre service à qn [machine, appareil] to be a help to sb; [route, passage, magasin] to be convenient (for sb); ça peut toujours rendre service it might come in handy;5 ( action de servir) gén service; être au service de son pays to serve one's country; ‘décoré pour service rendu’ ‘decorated for service to his/her country’; je suis à leur service ( employé) I work for them; ( dévoué) I'm at their disposal; travailler au service de la paix to work for peace; mettre son énergie/argent au service d'une cause to devote all one's energy/money to a cause; ‘à votre service!’ ( je vous en prie) ‘don't mention it!’, ‘not at all!’; ‘que puis- je faire or qu'y a-t-il pour votre service?’ ‘may I help you?’; ‘(nous sommes) à votre service madame’ ‘always pleased to be of assistance’;6 ( à table) service; le service est rapide ici the service here is quick; 30 euros service compris/non compris 30 euros service included/not included; le service n'est pas compris service is not included; 12% pour le service 12% service charge; faire le service ( servir les plats) to serve; ( desservir) to act as waiter; manger au premier service to go to the first sitting;7 ( des gens de maison) (domestic) service; être en service chez qn, être au service de qn to be in sb's service; entrer au service de qn to go to work for sb; prendre qn à son service to take sb on, to engage sb; avoir plusieurs personnes à son service to have several people working for one; escalier de service back stairs (pl), service stairs (pl); entrée de service tradesmen's entrance GB, service entrance;8 ( obligations professionnelles) service; avoir 20 ans de service dans une entreprise to have been with a firm 20 years; être de or en service to be on duty; l'infirmière de service the duty nurse, the nurse on duty; prendre son service à to come on duty at; elle n'avait pas assuré son service ce jour-là she hadn't come on duty that day; assurer le service de qn to cover for sb; il ne fume pas pendant les heures de service he doesn't smoke on duty; son service se termine à he comes off duty at; être en service commandé [policier] to be on an official assignment, to be acting under orders; état de service(s) record of service, service record; le service de nuit night duty; pharmacie de service duty chemist; être de service de garde ( dans un hôpital) to be on duty; ( médecin généraliste) to be on call; service en temps de paix Mil peace-time service; être or jouer l'idiot de service to be the house clown;9 ( section administrative) department; service administratif/culturel/du personnel administrative/cultural/personnel department; le service de psychiatrie/de cardiologie the psychiatric/cardiology department; le service des urgences the casualty department GB ou emergency room US; les blessés furent conduits au service des urgences the injured were taken to casualty GB ou to ER US; service de réanimation intensive care unit; les services de sécurité the security services; les services secrets the secret service; les services d'espionnage or de renseignements the intelligence services; service de dépannage breakdown service; service d'entretien ( département de l'entreprise) maintenance department; ( personnel) maintenance staff; les services du Premier Ministre se refusent à tout commentaire the Prime Minister's office has refused to comment; chef de service ( dans une administration) section head; ( dans un hôpital) senior consultant;10 Mil ( obligations militaires) service (militaire) military ou national service; service national national service; faire son service (militaire) to do one's military service; service actif active service; service civil non-military national service; partir au service○ to go off to do one's military service; être bon pour le service lit to be passed fit for military service; fig hum to be passed fit; reprendre du service to re-enlist ou sign up again; quitter le service to be discharged, to leave the forces;11 ( vaisselle) set; un service à thé a tea set; un service à café a coffee set; service à dessert or gâteau dessert set; service de table dinner service;12 Relig service; service religieux church service;13 Sport service, serve; être au service to serve ou be serving; Valérie au service Valérie to serve; changement de service change of service; faute de service fault.B services nmpl services; les biens et les services goods and services; avoir recours aux services de qn to call on sb's services; se passer or priver des services de qn to dispense with sb's services; services en ligne Ordinat online services.service après-vente, SAV ( département) after-sales service department; ( activité) after-sales service; service minimum reduced service; service d'ordre stewards (pl); service de presse (de ministère, parti, d'entreprise) press office; ( de maison d'édition) press and publicity department; ( livre) review copy; service public public service; Service du travail obligatoire, STO compulsory labourGB organization set up in 1943 during the German occupation of France; services sociaux Prot Soc social services.[sɛrvis] nom masculinmon service commence à 18 h I go on duty ou I start my shift ou I start work at 6 p.mprendre son service to go on ou to report for dutymon vieux manteau a repris du service (familier & humoristique) my old coat has been saved from the binle service de l'État public service, the service of the state2. [pour un client, un maître] serviceelle a deux ans de service comme femme de chambre she's been in service for two years as a chambermaidil a mis son savoir-faire au service de la société he put his expertise at the disposal of the companyservice compris ‘service included’service non compris ‘service not included’3. [série de repas] sittingnous irons au premier/deuxième service we'll go to the first/second sitting4. [département - d'une entreprise, d'un hôpital] departmenta. [département] legal departmentb. [personnes] legal expertsles services commerciaux the sales department ou divisionservice du personnel personnel department ou divisiona. [département] press officeb. [personnes] press officers, press office staff5. [aide] favourrendre un service à quelqu'un [suj: personne] to do somebody a favour, to help somebody outlui faire tous ses devoirs, c'est un mauvais service à lui rendre! it won't do her any good if you do all her homework for her!ça peut encore/toujours rendre service it can still/it'll always come in handy6. [assortiment - de linge, de vaisselle] setservice d'été/d'hiver summer/winter timetableservice non assuré le dimanche no service on Sundays, no Sunday service8. MILITAIREservice militaire ou national military/national serviceallez, bon/bons pour le service! (figuré & humoristique) it'll/they'll do!Pichot au service!, service Pichot! Pichot to serve!10. ÉLECTRICITÉ duty12. RELIGION————————services nom masculin pluriel2. [collaboration] servicesb. (euphémisme) [le licencier] to dispense with somebody's servicesoffrir ses services à quelqu'un to offer one's services to somebody, to offer to help somebody out3. POLITIQUEservices secrets ou spéciaux secret service————————en service locution adjectivale————————en service locution adverbialecet hélicoptère/cette presse entrera en service en mai this helicopter will be put into service/this press will come on stream in Mayservice après-vente nom masculin1. [prestation] after-sales service2. [département] after-sales department[personnes] after-sales staffservice d'ordre nom masculin1. [système] policingmettre en place un service d'ordre dans un quartier to establish a strong police presence in an area2. [gendarmes] police (contingent)[syndiqués, manifestants] stewards————————service public nom masculinpublic service ou utilityUntil 1996, all French men aged 18 and over were required to do ten months national service unless declared unfit. The system has been phased out and replaced by an obligatory journée d'appel de préparation à la défense, one day spent learning about the army and army career opportunities. The JAPD is obligatory for men and for women. The object of this reform is to professionalize the army. -
12 deber
m.duty.los derechos y los deberes de los ciudadanos citizens' rights and dutiesElla tiene el deber de cuidarla She has the obligation to take care of herv.1 to owe.deber algo a alguien to owe somebody something, to owe something to somebody¿qué o cuánto le debo? how much is it?Esa pobre mujer debe desde hace mucho That poor woman owes since long beforeEsa mujer debe mil dólares That woman owes one thousand dollars.2 to have to, to be bound to, to have got to, to must.Ella debe cuidar de María She has to take care of Mary.3 to be supposed to.* * *1 (estar obligado a algo) to owe2 (dinero, cosa) to owe► auxiliar1 (obligación presente) must, have to, have got to2 (obligación pasada) should, ought to3 (obligación futura) must, have to, have got to4 (obligación moral) should, ought to1 (ser consecuencia) to be due (a, to)2 (tener una obligación) to have a duty (a, to)1 (obligación) duty, obligation1 (escolares) homework sing\cumplir con su deber to do one's dutyhacer los deberes to do one's homework* * *1. noun m. 2. verb1) must2) ought to, should3) to owe* * *1.VT [+ dinero, explicación, respeto] to owe¿qué le debo? — [en bares, tiendas] how much (is it)?, how much do I owe you?
todo lo que he conseguido se lo debo a mi padre — I have my father to thank for everything I have achieved, I owe everything I have achieved to my father
2. VI1) + infin[obligación]como debe ser — as it ought to o should be
debería cambiarse cada mes — it ought to o should be changed every month
habrías debido traerlo — you ought to have o should have brought it
debíamos haber salido ayer — we were to have o should have left yesterday
2) + infin[suposición]debe (de) ser así — it must be like that, that's how it must be
no debía (de) andar lejos de los 200.000 libros — it can't have been far off 200,000 books
3.See:* * *I 1.verbo transitivoa) < dinero> to owe¿cuánto se debe? — how much do I/we owe you?
b) <favor/visita/explicación> to owe2.deber v aux1) ( expresando obligación)deber + inf: debes decírselo you have to o you must tell her; deberías or debías habérselo dicho you ought to have o you should have told her; la trató respetuosamente, como debe ser he treated her with respect, as he should; no debes usarlo you are not to o you must not use it; no se debe mentir you mustn't tell lies; no deberías haberlo dejado solo — you shouldn't have left him alone
2) (expresando suposición, probabilidad)a)deber (de) + inf: deben (de) ser más de las cinco it must be after five o'clock; deben (de) haber salido they must have gone out; debe (de) estar ganando mucho — she/he must be earning a lot
b) ( en frases negativas)3.deberse v pron1) ( tener su causa en)deberse a algo: se debió a un fallo humano it was caused by o was due to human error; todo se debe a que no estudia it's all due o down to the fact that she doesn't study; ¿a qué se debe este escándalo? — what's all this racket about?
IIel artista se debe a su público — an artist has a duty to his/her public
1) ( obligación) dutycumplió con su deber — he carried out o did his duty
2) deberes masculino plural ( tarea escolar) homework, assignment (AmE)¿has hecho los deberes? — have you done your homework?
* * *I 1.verbo transitivoa) < dinero> to owe¿cuánto se debe? — how much do I/we owe you?
b) <favor/visita/explicación> to owe2.deber v aux1) ( expresando obligación)deber + inf: debes decírselo you have to o you must tell her; deberías or debías habérselo dicho you ought to have o you should have told her; la trató respetuosamente, como debe ser he treated her with respect, as he should; no debes usarlo you are not to o you must not use it; no se debe mentir you mustn't tell lies; no deberías haberlo dejado solo — you shouldn't have left him alone
2) (expresando suposición, probabilidad)a)deber (de) + inf: deben (de) ser más de las cinco it must be after five o'clock; deben (de) haber salido they must have gone out; debe (de) estar ganando mucho — she/he must be earning a lot
b) ( en frases negativas)3.deberse v pron1) ( tener su causa en)deberse a algo: se debió a un fallo humano it was caused by o was due to human error; todo se debe a que no estudia it's all due o down to the fact that she doesn't study; ¿a qué se debe este escándalo? — what's all this racket about?
IIel artista se debe a su público — an artist has a duty to his/her public
1) ( obligación) dutycumplió con su deber — he carried out o did his duty
2) deberes masculino plural ( tarea escolar) homework, assignment (AmE)¿has hecho los deberes? — have you done your homework?
* * *deber11 = duty [duties, -pl.], obligation.Ex: Organisations often expect an information officer or librarian to prepare such abstracts as are necessary, in addition to performing various other information duties.
Ex: At the same time, the Library acknowledges its obligation to cooperate with major abstracting and indexing services to build a comprehensive national bibliographic data base.* consciente de los deberes de Uno = dutiful.* cumplir (con) un deber = discharge + duty.* deber ciudadano = civic duty.* deber cumplido = duty accomplished.* deberes = homework, school tasks, homework assignment, school work [schoolwork], class assignment, course assignment, student assignment.* deber familiar = familial duty.* deber moral = moral duty.* deber profesional = professional duty.* hacer el deber de Uno = do + Posesivo + part.* hacer los deberes = do + homework.* incumplimiento del deber = neglect of duty, breach of duty.* más allá del deber = beyond the call of duty.* negligencia en el cumplimiento del deber = dereliction of duty.* no hacer los deberes = be asleep at the wheel.* sentido del deber = sense of duty.* tener el deber de = have + a responsibility to.* tener un deber que cumplir con = have + a responsibility to.deber22 = must, ought to, owe.Ex: Even the same collection some years on will have altered, and the device, in order to remain effective, must evolve in keeping with the development of the collection.
Ex: Early in its discussions the Working Group concluded that the implementation of an international authority system ought to follow a phased approach.Ex: DOBIS/LIBIS can then tell which borrowers owe the library money.* debe por lo tanto deducirse que = it must therefore follow that.* debe por lo tanto esperarse que = it must therefore follow that.* debe por lo tanto ser lógico que = it must therefore follow that.* debe por lo tanto ser una consecuencia lógica que = it must therefore follow that.* deber haber ocurrido antes = be long overdue.* debería existir = there + ought to be.* debería haber = there + ought to be.* debería(n) = should.* deber pagarse = be payable.* deber pensarse = thought + must be given.* deber prestar atención = warrant + consideration.* deberse = be due.* deberse a = be due to, be caused by, be attributable to, boil down to.* deber una multa = owe + fine.* deber + Verbo = be + to be + Verbo.* debe ser + Participio = be to be + Participio.* estar haciendo algo que no se debe = be up to no good, get up to + no good.* mérito + deberse a = credit + be due to, credit + go to, be to the credit of.* multa que se debe = unpaid fine.* no actuar como se debe = be remiss.* no cumplir con + Posesivo + deber = be remiss.* no deber nada = pay + Posesivo + dues.* no debes juzgar un libro por el color de sus pastas = don't judge a book by its cover, don't judge a book by its cover.* * *vt1 ‹dinero› to owele deben 15.000 pesos/dos meses de sueldo they owe her 15,000 pesos/two months' salaryquieren que les paguen lo que se les debe they want to be paid what they are due o what is owing to themno le debo nada a nadie I don't owe anything to anyone¿cuánto or ( fam) qué se debe? how much o what do I/we owe you?te debo las entradas de ayer I owe you for the tickets from yesterday2 ‹favor/visita/explicación› to owele debo la vida I owe her my lifetodavía le debo el regalo de cumpleaños I still owe him o haven't given him a birthday presentme debe carta ella a mí she owes me a letter, it's her turn to write to meles debes respeto y obediencia you owe them respect and obedienceEspaña le debe mucho al Islam Spain owes a great debt to Islamesta victoria se la debo a mi entrenador I have my coach to thank for this victory¿a qué debo este honor? to what do I owe this honor?■A (expresando obligación) deber + INF:debes decírselo you have to o you must tell herdeberías or debías habérselo dicho you ought to have o you should have told herdeberás decírselo you will have to tell herdebería or debiera darte vergüenza you ought to be o you should be ashamed of yourselfla trató cortés y respetuosamente, como debe ser he treated her with courtesy and respect, as he shouldno debes usarlo sin antes pedir permiso you are not to o you must not use it without asking firstno se debe mentir you mustn't tell liesno deberías or debías haberlo dejado solo or no debiste dejarlo solo you shouldn't have left him aloneB (expresando suposición, probabilidad)1 deber ( DE) + INF:ya deben (de) ser más de las cinco it must be after five o'clock¡debes (de) estar muriéndote de hambre! you must be starving!deben (de) haber salido they must have gone outnos hemos debido (de) cruzar we must have passed each otherdebe (de) estar ganando mucho más que eso she must be earning a lot more than thatle debe (de) doler mucho it must be very painfulésos debieron (de) ser or deben (de) haber sido momentos muy duros that must have been a very difficult timehas debido (de) perderlo or debes (de) haberlo perdido you must have lost it2(en frases negativas): no deben (de) saber del accidente, si no habrían vuelto they can't know about the accident or they would have come back¿por qué no ha llamado? — no debe (de) haber podido why hasn't he phoned? — he obviously hasn't been able tola conferencia fue en francés, no deben (de) haber entendido nada the lecture was in French, I bet they didn't understand a word o they can't have understood a wordno les debe haber interesado or no les debió interesar they can't have been interested o presumably, they weren't interested■ deberseA (tener su causa en) deberse A algo:el retraso se debe al mal tiempo the delay is due to the bad weatherel accidente se debió a un fallo humano the accident was caused by o was due to human error¿a qué se debe este escándalo? what's all this racket about?¿a qué se debe tan agradable sorpresa? to what do I owe such a pleasant surprise?B «persona» (tener obligaciones hacia) deberse A algn; to have a duty TO sbel artista se debe a su público an artist has a duty to his or her publicme debo antes que nada a mis pacientes my first responsibility o duty is to my patientsme debo a mis electores I have a duty to the people who voted for meA (obligación) dutycumplió con su deber he carried out o did his dutyfaltó a su deber he failed in his duty, he failed to do his dutyel deber del soldado para con su patria a soldier's duty to his countryvotar es un derecho y un deber del cuidadano voting is the right and duty of every citizentengo el triste deber de comunicarles el fallecimiento de … ( frml); it is my sad duty to inform you of the death of …es un deber de conciencia ayudarlos I feel morally bound to help them¿has hecho los deberes? have you done your homework?nos ponen or mandan muchos deberes they set us a lot of homework* * *
deber 1 ( conjugate deber) verbo transitivo ‹dinero/favor/explicación› to owe;
deber v aux
1 ( expresando obligación):
no debes usarlo you must not use it;
deberías or debías habérselo dicho you ought to have o you should have told her;
no se debe mentir you mustn't tell lies;
no deberías haberlo dejado solo you shouldn't have left him alone
2 (expresando suposición, probabilidad):
deben (de) haber salido they must have gone out;
debe (de) estar enamorado she/he must be in love;
no deben (de) saber la dirección they probably don't know the address;
no les debe (de) interesar they can't be interested
deberse verbo pronominal
1 ( tener su causa en) deberse a algo to be due to sth;
¿a qué se debe este escándalo? what's all this racket about?
2 [ persona] ( tener obligaciones hacia) deberse a algn to have a duty to sb
deber 2 sustantivo masculino
1 ( obligación) duty;◊ cumplió con su deber he carried out o did his duty
2
deber 1 sustantivo masculino
I duty: deberá cumplir con su deber, she must do her duty
II Educ deberes, homework sing
deber 2
I verbo transitivo
1 (tener una deuda) to owe: me debe una disculpa, he owes me an apology
le debe mucho a su entrenador, he owes a lot to his trainer
2 (+ infinitivo: estar obligado a) must, to have to: debe tomar el medicamento, he must take the medicine
debía hacerlo, I had to do it
ya debería estar aquí, he ought to be here‚ ¡debería darte vergüenza!, you should be ashamed of yourself! o shame on you! ➣ Ver nota en must 3 (para dar un consejo) should: deberías estar presente, you should be present
II verbo intransitivo ( deber + de + infinitivo: ser posible) (positivo) must: debe de haberlo oído en alguna parte, he must have heard it from somewhere
(negativo) can not: debe de estar dormido, he must be asleep
todavía no deben de haber llegado, they can't have arrived yet
' deber' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
carga
- hacer
- imponerse
- incumplir
- incumplimiento
- obligación
- alto
- ciudadano
- cometido
- cumplimiento
- cumplir
- inexcusable
- ir
- satisfacción
- sentido
English:
accomplishment
- avoid
- before
- carry out
- civic
- discharge
- do
- duck
- duty
- immune
- job
- meet
- must
- need
- neglect
- ought
- owe
- service
- should
- suppose
- want
- bound
- call
- well
* * *♦ nm[obligación] duty;mi deber es ayudar it is my duty to help;es mi deber intentar detenerle it is my duty to try to stop him;cumplir con el deber to do one's duty;faltarás a tu deber si no acudes a la reunión you will be failing in your duty if you don't come to the meeting;los derechos y los deberes de los ciudadanos citizens' rights and duties;mantener la ciudad limpia es deber de todos keeping the city tidy is everyone's responsibility;tiene un gran sentido del deber she has a great sense of duty;tengo el triste deber de comunicarles la aparición del cuerpo de su hijo it is my sad duty to inform you that your son's body has been found♦ deberes nmpl[trabajo escolar] homework;hacer los deberes to do one's homework;nos han mandado muchos deberes para el fin de semana they've set o given us a lot of homework for the weekend♦ vt1. [adeudar] to owe;deber algo a alguien to owe sb sth, to owe sth to sb;¿qué se debe? how much is it?, how much does it come to?;¿qué te debo del pan y la leche? what do I owe you for the bread and milk?;me deben medio millón de pesos they owe me half a million pesos;me debes una cena you owe me a meal out2. [moralmente] to owe;te debo la vida I owe you my life;este éxito se lo debo a mis compañeros I owe this success to my colleagues, I have my colleagues to thank for this success;creo que te debo una explicación I think I owe you an explanation;debemos mucho a nuestros padres we owe our parents a lot;no le debo nada a nadie I don't owe anybody anything;Formal¿a qué debemos el honor de su visita? to what do we owe the pleasure of your visit?;Famdeber una a alguien to owe sb one;te debo una, compañero I owe you one, mate♦ videberían abolir esa ley they ought to o should abolish that law;debes dominar tus impulsos you must o should control your impulses;debería darles vergüenza they ought to be ashamed;no deberías fumar tanto you shouldn't smoke so much;no debes decir mentiras you mustn't o shouldn't tell lies;no debiste insultarle you shouldn't have insulted her;Famuna película como debe ser a proper film, a film like films were meant to be2. [expresa posibilidad]el tren debe de llegar alrededor de las diez the train should arrive at about ten;deben de haber llegado ya a casa they must o should be home by now;deben de ser las diez it must be ten o'clock;no debe de ser muy mayor she can't be very old;no debe de hacer mucho frío it can't be very o that cold;debe de ser extranjero he must be a foreigner;debes de estar cayéndote de sueño you must be exhausted;debo haberlo dejado en casa I must have left it at home* * *I m1 duty2:deberes pl homework sgII v/t owe;deber a alguien 500 pesos owe s.o. 500 pesosIII v/i1 en presente must, have to;debo llegar a la hora I must be on time, I have to be on time;no debo llegar tarde I mustn’t be late2 en pretérito should have;debería haberme callado I should have kept quiet3 en futuro will have to;deberán terminar imediatamente they must finish o they will have to finish immediately4 en condicional should;¿qué debería hacer? what should I do?;no deberías hacer eso you shouldn’t do that;debería ser lo suficientemente largo that should be long enough:debe de hacer frío it must be cold;debe de tener quince años he must be about 15;debe de hacer poco que viven aquí they can’t have lived here for long;ya deben de haber llegado they must o should have arrived by now* * *deber vt: to owedeber v aux1) : must, have todebo ir a la oficina: I must go to the office2) : should, ought todeberías buscar trabajo: you ought to look for workdebe ser mexicano: he must be Mexican* * *deber2 vb1. (dinero, favor, etc) to owete debo 1.000 pesetas I owe you 1,000 pesetas2. (estar obligado en presente) must / to have to3. (estar obligado en condicional) should / ought to -
13 World War II
(1939-1945)In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). -
14 Staatssiegel
Staatssiegel, großes
the Great Seal (Br.);
• Staatsstellung government situation (job), officeholding (US);
• Staatsstellung durch die Beeinflussung eines Kabinettsmitgliedes erhalten to obtain a government position through interest with a cabinet minister;
• hohe Staatsstellung innehaben to be high up in the civil service (Br.);
• Staatssteuer state (national, imperial, Br.) tax;
• Staatsstreich coup d'état (French);
• Staatsstreik public sector strike;
• Staatssubvention subsidy;
• rückzahlbare Staatssubvention revolving fund (US);
• Staatssymbol national emblem;
• Staatsunternehmen government business (corporation), governmental undertaking, state corporation, state-owned enterprise (US), state-run company;
• Staatsunterstützung state aid (US), subsidy, [export] bounty;
• Staatsurkunden state papers;
• Staatsvermögen national domain, public (crown, Br.) property;
• Staatsverschuldung state indebtedness;
• Staatsverschuldung im Ausland external debt;
• Staatsversicherung state insurance, (Krankenversicherung) National Health Insurance (Br.);
• Staatsvertrag treaty, convention, compact between states;
• Staatsverwaltung government, civic administration;
• Staatswerft state shipyard, naval yard (US);
• Staatswirtschaft (Lehre) political economy;
• Staatswirtschaftslehre [applied] political economy;
• Staatswissenschaftler political scientist;
• Staatszeitung government newspaper;
• Staatsziel[bestimmung] state objective;
• Staatszugehörigkeitszeichen (Flugzeug) nationalization mark;
• Staatszuschuss state (government[al]) grant (subsidy), Treasury subsidy (Br.), grant-in-aid (US);
• Staatszuschuss zum Einkommen income supplement (US);
• Staatszuschuss erhalten to be subsidized. -
15 großes
Staatssiegel, großes
the Great Seal (Br.);
• Staatsstellung government situation (job), officeholding (US);
• Staatsstellung durch die Beeinflussung eines Kabinettsmitgliedes erhalten to obtain a government position through interest with a cabinet minister;
• hohe Staatsstellung innehaben to be high up in the civil service (Br.);
• Staatssteuer state (national, imperial, Br.) tax;
• Staatsstreich coup d'état (French);
• Staatsstreik public sector strike;
• Staatssubvention subsidy;
• rückzahlbare Staatssubvention revolving fund (US);
• Staatssymbol national emblem;
• Staatsunternehmen government business (corporation), governmental undertaking, state corporation, state-owned enterprise (US), state-run company;
• Staatsunterstützung state aid (US), subsidy, [export] bounty;
• Staatsurkunden state papers;
• Staatsvermögen national domain, public (crown, Br.) property;
• Staatsverschuldung state indebtedness;
• Staatsverschuldung im Ausland external debt;
• Staatsversicherung state insurance, (Krankenversicherung) National Health Insurance (Br.);
• Staatsvertrag treaty, convention, compact between states;
• Staatsverwaltung government, civic administration;
• Staatswerft state shipyard, naval yard (US);
• Staatswirtschaft (Lehre) political economy;
• Staatswirtschaftslehre [applied] political economy;
• Staatswissenschaftler political scientist;
• Staatszeitung government newspaper;
• Staatsziel[bestimmung] state objective;
• Staatszugehörigkeitszeichen (Flugzeug) nationalization mark;
• Staatszuschuss state (government[al]) grant (subsidy), Treasury subsidy (Br.), grant-in-aid (US);
• Staatszuschuss zum Einkommen income supplement (US);
• Staatszuschuss erhalten to be subsidized. -
16 old
old [əʊld](a) (not new or recent) vieux (vieille);∎ the old traditions of the countryside les vieilles traditions campagnardes;∎ there's an old saying that… il y a un vieux dicton qui dit que…;∎ it's hard to shake off old habits on ne se débarrasse pas facilement de ses vieilles habitudes;∎ not that old excuse again! tu ne vas pas/il ne va pas/ etc ressortir encore une fois la même excuse!;∎ they're old friends ce sont de vieux amis ou des amis de longue date;∎ he's an old friend of mine c'est un de mes vieux amis;∎ to go over old ground revenir sur un terrain déjà parcouru;∎ an old debt une dette de longue date;∎ that's an old dodge c'est un coup classique;∎ the old country la mère patrie(b) (not young) vieux (vieille);∎ an old man un vieil homme;∎ an old woman une vieille femme;∎ I don't like that old man/woman je n'aime pas ce vieux/cette vieille;∎ old people personnes fpl âgées;∎ the old people next door le couple âgé qui habite à côté, familiar les vieux qui habitent à côté;∎ to get or grow old vieillir;∎ who will look after me in my old age? qui s'occupera de moi quand je serai vieux?;∎ I've got a little money put aside for my old age j'ai quelques économies de côté pour mes vieux jours;∎ old people's home maison f de retraite∎ how old is she? quel âge a-t-elle?;∎ to be old enough to do sth être en âge de faire qch;∎ she's old enough to know better elle ne devrait plus faire ce genre de chose à son âge;∎ he's old enough to look after himself il est (bien) assez grand pour se débrouiller tout seul;∎ he's old enough to be my father! il pourrait être mon père!;∎ you're as old as you feel on a l'âge de ses artères;∎ she is older than I am elle est plus âgée ou vieille que moi;∎ she's two years older than him elle a deux ans de plus que lui;∎ my boy wants to be a soldier when he's older mon fils veut être soldat quand il sera grand;∎ the older generation la vieille génération;∎ my older sister ma sœur aînée;∎ the oldest of the tribe l'aîné(e) m,f de la tribu;∎ she's six months/twenty-five years old elle a six mois/vingt-cinq ans, elle est âgée de six mois/vingt-cinq ans;∎ at six years old à (l'âge de) six ans;∎ they have a fourteen-year-old boy ils ont un garçon de quatorze ans;∎ a three-day-old baby un bébé de trois jours∎ that's my old address c'est mon ancienne adresse;∎ an old admirer of hers un de ses anciens admirateurs;∎ an old Etonian un ancien élève d'Eton;∎ in the old days autrefois, jadis;∎ the good old days le bon vieux temps;∎ he went to my old school il a fréquenté mon ancienne école;∎ of the old school de la vieille école;∎ a writer of the old school un écrivain de la vieille école∎ old Jimmy wants to speak to you le vieux Jimmy veut te parler;∎ good old Frank! ce (bon) vieux Frank!;∎ old-fashioned hello, old thing or chap! salut, mon vieux ou ma vieille branche!∎ it's a funny old life! la vie est drôle, quand même!;∎ very familiar you old bastard! espèce de salaud!;∎ silly old bat espèce de vieille folle!;∎ we had a fine old time nous avons passé un sacré bon moment;∎ any old bit of wood will do n'importe quel vieux bout de bois fera l'affaire□ ;∎ any old how n'importe comment□ ;∎ I just wear any old thing to do the gardening je porte n'importe quel vieux truc pour jardiner;∎ he's not just any old scientist, he's a Nobel prizewinner ce n'est pas n'importe quel scientifique, c'est un prix Nobel□∎ the old les vieux mpl∎ in days of old autrefois, jadis;∎ the knights of old les chevaliers du temps jadis ou de jadis∎ I know them of old je les connais depuis longtemps►► British old age pension (pension f de) retraite f;British old age pensioner retraité(e) m,f;the Old Bailey = la cour d'assises de Londres;British old boy (former pupil) ancien élève m; familiar (old man) vieux m; familiar old-fashioned (form of address) mon vieux;∎ he's a nice old boy c'est un vieux monsieur charmant;British familiar old boy network = contacts privilégiés entre anciens élèves d'un même établissement privé;∎ he got the job through the old boy network il a obtenu ce poste en faisant jouer ses relations□ ;the Old Dominion State = surnom donné à la Virginie;Old English vieil anglais m;Old English sheepdog bobtail m;Old Faithful = geyser naturel dans le parc national de Yellowstone;British familiar the Old Firm = appellation collective des deux grandes équipes de football de Glasgow, Celtic et Rangers;old flame ancien béguin m;Old French ancien français m;British old girl (former pupil) ancienne élève f; familiar (old woman) vieille f; familiar old-fashioned (form of address) ma chère, chère amie;∎ she's a nice old girl c'est une vieille dame charmante;American Old Glory = surnom du drapeau américain;old guard vieille garde f;old hand vieux routier m, vétéran m;∎ he's an old hand at flying these planes cela fait des années qu'il pilote ces avions;familiar old hat dépassé□, vieux (vieille)□ ;Old High German ancien haut allemand m;Old Labour = appellation populaire du parti travailliste avant le passage au New Labour, insistant sur le fait qu'il se situait alors plus à gauche sur l'échiquier politique;the Old Line State = surnom donné au Maryland;old maid vieille fille f;familiar old man (husband) homme m, jules m; (father) vieux m; British old-fashioned (form of address) mon cher, cher ami;American Old Man River = surnom donné au Mississippi;Botany old man's beard (Clematis vitalba) clématite f des haies, clématite f vigne blanche;old money (before decimalization) ancien système m monétaire;∎ 10 shillings in old money 10 shillings dans l'ancien système monétaire;∎ he married into old money (wealth) il a épousé une riche héritière;old moon vieille lune f;familiar Old Nick Satan□ m, Lucifer□ m;Linguistics Old Norse vieux norrois m;Linguistics Old Persian vieux perse m;British History the Old Pretender le Prétendant (surnom de Jacques Édouard Stuart (1688-1766), fils du roi Jacques II d'Angleterre, qui lutta en vain pour devenir roi de Grande-Bretagne);British old school tie (garment) cravate f aux couleurs de son ancienne école; figurative pejorative = attitudes et système de valeurs typiques des anciens élèves des écoles privées britanniques;old stager vieux routier m, vétéran m;Bible Old Testament Ancien Testament m;Old Trafford (cricket ground) = terrain de cricket à Manchester; (football ground) = terrain de football à Manchester;Old Vic = surnom du Royal Victoria Theatre à Londres;old wives' tale conte m de bonne femme;familiar old woman (wife) patronne f, bourgeoise f; (mother) vieille f; figurative pejorative (timid, fussy man) chochotte f;∎ he's such an old woman il est comme une petite vieille;the Old World l'Ancien Monde m
См. также в других словарях:
National Debt Clock — The National Debt Clock on September 15, 2009, at which time it reads approximately 11.8 trillion USD in national debt The National Debt Clock is a billboard sized running total dot matrix display which constantly updates to show the current… … Wikipedia
Timeline of the French Revolution — History of France series French Revolution Causes Estates General National Assembly Storming of the Bastille National … Wikipedia
Causes of the French Revolution — The cause of the French Revolution is a significant subject of historical debate. France in 1789, although facing some economic ( especially taxation) difficulties and simplicities, was one of the richest and most powerful nations in Europe;… … Wikipedia
French Revolution — The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of political and social upheaval in the history of France, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic… … Wikipedia
French Guiana — French Guianese, French Guianan. /gee an euh, gee ah neuh/ an overseas department of France, on the NE coast of South America: formerly a French colony. 49,200; 35,135 sq. mi. (91,000 sq. km). Cap.: Cayenne. * * * French Guiana Introduction… … Universalium
French Polynesia — <p></p> <p></p> Introduction ::French Polynesia <p></p> Background: <p></p> The French annexed various Polynesian island groups during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up… … The World Factbook
French Polynesia — a French overseas territory in the S Pacific, including the Society Islands, Marquesas Islands, and other scattered island groups. 119,168; 1544 sq. mi. (4000 sq. km). Cap.: Papeete. Formerly, French Oceania. * * * French Polynesia Introduction… … Universalium
The United States of America — The United States of America † Catholic Encyclopedia ► The United States of America BOUNDARIES AND AREA On the east the boundary is formed by the St. Croix River and an arbitrary line to the St. John, and on the north by the… … Catholic encyclopedia
National Asset Management Agency — Agency overview Formed Late 2009 Jurisdiction Ireland … Wikipedia
debt — n [Old French dette, ultimately from Latin debita, plural of debitum debt, from neuter of debitus, past participle of debere to owe] 1: something owed: as a: a specific sum of money or a performance due another esp. by agreement (as a loan… … Law dictionary
French Directory — Executive Government of the First French Republic In office 2 November 1795 – 10 November 1799 Preceded by National Convention Succeeded by French Consulate with Napoleon Bonaparte as First Con … Wikipedia
